Theories on the Gender Pay Gap

Theories on the Gender Pay GapAustralian wo workforce pass about 83 cents for every $1 a man earns, according to a radical report analysing the grammatical wake upual practice carry cracking. Linda McDowell suggests that informal practiceed assumptions name a range of influences on modern workplaces. Analyse the sexual practice manufacture dislocation, engaging with the theoreticians you guard examine this semester.INTRODUCTIONAs Linda McDowell suggests, sex activityed assumptions coming from heteronormative ideals and rules signifi great dealtly influence contemporary workplaces. This subsequently outcomes in the sexual activity get gap (1995). This paper searchs to life-sustainingly analyze the influences emanating from sexualityed assumptions on contemporary workplaces. Additionally, the link surrounded by these assumptions and the gender pay gap will be examined. This will be executed through examining the impacts of heteronormativity, which result in a n ever-ending binarised cycle that perpetuates the gender pay gap. Further, the executable challenges to gendered assumptions introduced by Judith butler will be examined. However, to ensure a all-round(prenominal) depth psychology, the shortcomings of these challenges, and the subversive bureau of hegemonic maleness will also be discussed. WHAT IS THE gender PAY GAP?The gender pay gap in fellowship is something thatis deemed distressingly evident, and continues to steadily control women insociety (McDowell 2014 p.829). In Australia, the Gender pay gap refers to thediscrepancy in pay between men and women in employment. Current statisticshighlight that full-time working women earn 84% of a mans pay, making the genderpay gap set at 16%. (WGEA, 2017, p.8). From this, it is obvious that progressis necessary. However, progress is not totally slow, but proving to be difficult,as the gender pay gap twenty dollar bill days ago was sitting at 17%, meaning that it has taken up to two decades to improve womens pay by a mere 1% (WGEA, 2017, p.8).This is highly indicative of the strongh white-haired that send genderedassumptions go over the workforce, change surface in the twenty-first century.A key theorist on the gender pay gap, LindaMcDowell, states that women in the workplace nurse fought to shit theright to be in that location at all (1995,p.80). This idea that women take a authority to gain rightsto earn m whizy is embedded in historical ideologies that ar not just out-datedbut still guide the lives of many women today. earlyish feminist interventions toimprove access to work and pay rates be still ongoing, such as the Liberal feministmovement. The Liberal Feminist movement began in the early 1800s, with the aimof providing women with rights qualified to those of men in education, the workforceand in society (Tong, 1989). Although some of the endeavours of the movement take aimbeen achieved, such as women acquiring corporate and authoritative jobs thatwere once male-dominated, there argon new roadblocks (Bishom-Rapp, S &Sargeant, M, 2016). The gender pay gap is one of the almost signifi natest new restraints implemented by institutions to prevent further emergence of genderequality in the workforce.The gender pay gap can be seen as originatingfrom the three glass ceilings embedded in contemporary society, andsubsequently, contemporary workplaces (Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M,2016,p. 102). The term glass ceilings refers to the invisible barriers thatwomen confront as they approach the top of the corporate hierarchy. This termwas established by the ice Ceilings Commission, which sought to identify theglass ceiling barriers, and remove the blockages to advancement of women andminorities in employment (USDOL, 1995). The commission found there were threelevels of barriers. The first barrier is revives to prejudice and bias, comingfrom educational opportunities, or lack thereof. The second barrier is concernedwith the int ernal expressions of a business. These structures ar controllableby the business. They relate to the corporate climate and what is referred toas pipeline barriers that come from lack of instruction and c arer development,which predates to the stunting of possible career advancement (Bishom-Rapp, S& Sargeant, M, 2016,p. 103). The terminal barrier is concerned with thegovernment, and the lack of law enforcement, combined with dissemination of t apieceing about glass ceiling issues (Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M, 2016,p. 103). Although these three barriers cannot solely cut the widespreadhold that the gender pay gap has on contemporary workplaces, they seek topinpoint where the gender pay gap stems from, allowing work to be done in crying these areas. HETERONORMATIVITY IN CONTEMPORARY WORKFORCES With the fundamental aspects of the gender paygap now having been examined, the forces that perpetuate the existence of thissignificant issue deep d knowledge society require analysis. Th e most pressing force isthe concept of heteronormativity, which is a disadvantageous gender assumption that hasa substantial influence on contemporary workforces. Heteronormativity can bedefined as a be of lifestyle norms, in which people tend to reproducedistinct and complementary genders (man and woman) (Herz & Johannson,2015, p.1011). In contemporary society, heteronormativity is deemed to keepwomen in ( at heart its confines) andalso keeps women down, that is,subordinated (Jackson, 1999). Feminist confabulation surrounding heteronormativityrose in second-wave feminism, the movement that broadened the feminist debateto address issues of inequality and sexuality, as well as workplacedifficulties for women (Evans 1995). However, the origins of the normalisedheterosexual grade inside society can go back to the historical and ethnicaldepictions of men and women from the eighteenth century (Boe & Coykendall,2014). Thoughheteronormativity has a substantial heading within history a nd society, itsimpact as a gendered assumption within contemporary workforces is substantial.As heteronormativity conditions men and women to act a certain modal value according totheir sex (which is also historically and socially defined), it leaves womenboxed in. Heteronormativity and thestrict, strengthened gender binaries within society reflect the systems ofoppression, and the construction of gender hierarchies (Herz & Johannson,2015, p.1011). In bon ton to maintain a hold on society, ideas of conforming tohyper-heteronormative behaviours are reinforced by institutions within society.Subsequently, these societal influences reverberate into education, family-lifeand in particular, the workforce. Although women have gained the right tocoexist with men in contemporary workplaces, strict gender binaries preventwomen from career development, strengthened abilities, and subsequently reinforcethe gender-pay gap. The work of Angela McRobbie, a key theorist in the area of gender inequ ality in the workforce is highly pertinent to this discussion. McRobbies concept of the post-feminist masquerade highlights the harmful impact of gender assumptions in contemporary workforces (2007). McRobbie critiques the hyper-gendered performances women have been encouraged to withdraw in, as they place emphasis on the sexed body, and in figure gender differences. The post-feminist masquerade is a room for patriarchal law and hegemonic masculinity to gain dominance against feminism (McRobbie, 2007, p. 723). Hegemonic masculinity refers to the configuration of gender practice, which embodies the soon accepted answer to the problem of legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees the dominant go low of men, and the subordination of women (Bartholomaeus, 2013, p.280). This is done through encouraging women to engage in powder-puff consumer culture, so as to reinscribe their femininity in the workplace (McRobbie, 2007). These hyper-gendered performances entangle subscribing to c ommunal feminine practices, such as wearing tight skirts, high heels and a face full of make up to assert their femininity (McRobbie, 2007, p.722). As women are encouraged to perform hyper-femininity, institutions are able to reinforce aid of retribution from abandoning heteronormativity in the workplace. This forces women back within the rigid gender binary, creating an even greater divide between men and women in the workspace, ultimately perpetuating the gender pay gap. THE LINK TO THE GENDER PAY GAP AND THE REPERCUSSIONS Based on the analysis to date, the harmful nature of gender assumptions in the workplace has been examined. However, the way that these gendered assumptions impact the gender pay gap requires concentrated analysis. Gender assumptions have a direct link to thegender pay gap, as they regulate the field of work that many women are in. Womenare significantly overrepresented in the lowest paying occupations, asfemale-dominated jobs pay far less than male-dominated jobs (Ting, 2017).Feminised jobs include those relating to care-taking or domestic tasks, such asnursing, cleaning and childcare. These sex-segregated jobs are clearlyindicative of the roles ascribed to women within heterosexual discourse. These feminised jobs stems from what is knownas the caregiver ride. This model is a historical regime that took theinherent caregiver role of women, and control their employment to areasrelating to this heteronormative ideal (McRobbie, 2007). As much(prenominal) women are found in jobs that abide bythe caregiver model, the influence of this troublesome ancient structure todayis evident (McRobbie, 2007, p.730)However, this caregiver model cannot explainthe fact that the gender pay gap in Australia has been found to exist in morethan 1,000 occupations (Ting, 2017). This is due to the fact that men inworkplaces are promoted into higher positions or else than their femalecounterparts (Jaffee, 1989, p.377). This is problematic, as there is somewh at a double-disadvantage coming from thesejobs. Women in feminised occupations are twice disadvantaged- first by existencein a female field, and second by being a woman in that field, since men makemore than women, even in female handle(Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 137).Additionally, women in corporate jobs face vertical segregation. Vertical segregation refers to the excision of women from organisational positions of autonomy and authority, due to the sex differences within workplaces (Jaffee, 1989, p.387). Thus, the gender pay gap not plainly stems from the one area of feminised jobs, but also from a lack of career advancement that is within the power of organisations in society. gibe to Wolf and Fligstein, the sexual differences in power in the work scope are an important factor generating inequality in earnings between men and women (1979, 235). This highlights how ideas about the femininity of women drive contemporary workforce standards, as women are expected to perf orm work according to their performance of heterosexuality. Further, the semipermanent disadvantages that comefrom gendered assumptions and the subsequent gender pay gap will be criticallyanalysed. Not only does the gender pay gap lead to disadvantage for women in social,financial and personal situations, but also leads to sprightliness disadvantage. Lifetimedisadvantage refers to the factors that lead to the retirement ills of manywomen (Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 190). Thatis, the risks that women face from being unequally paid. As women go intoretirement, they are at risk of experiencing the critical impact of the genderpay gap. Women subsequently earn less over their lifetime, which results inlower superannuation, and a risk of poverty in old age. In 2012, 21.7% of womenaged over 65 were at risk of poverty, whereas only 16.3% of men were likely toexperience poverty (Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 116). Genderinequality in the workforce not only reflects current social po sition and powerinequalities, but it also leads to detrimental outcomes of lifetimedisadvantage for women. TACKLING THE GENDER double star Although gendered assumptions continue to driveworkplaces, there are ways to tackle this glary discrimination that womenface in employment. According to leading gender theorist, Judith Butler, thereis a means to challenge heteronormativity, which forms the foundation for thegender pay gap. Butler believes that gender is reiterated through regulatorypractices, and is culturally constructed through the heterosexual intercellular substance (Butler,1990, p.9). The heterosexual matrix refers to the re-stabilisation of genderthrough women repeatedly engaging in feminised behaviours and appearances(Butler, 1990). Therefore, the sexed body only gains significance from its continuous reification and institutionalised endorsement within society. As thegender binary requires engagement by society, an inherent instability withinthis social construct can be make out (Butler, 1990, p11). Because of this, women are able to exploitgendered assumptions through their constant reinforcement, as it becomesobvious to those looking to challenge it. Women in the workforce have alreadytaken charge in this area, as the overall gender pay gap in full-timeemployment decreased in 2015 to 2016 (WGEA, 2017,p.15).By viewing sex and gender as something culturally, historically and socially constructed, society will be able to define themselves with their own square upations and freedoms by challenge these constructed ideals. In particular, the feminist movement will make significant headway in this area through challenging normative heterosexuality. This feeling will reverberate in the workforce, as the structures seeking to restrain women from challenging hegemonic masculinity will destabilise. The gender pay gap, in particular, has improved among men and women in trades including machinery operating and building, decreasing by 4% in call of total remuneration between 2015 and 2016 (WGEA, 2017, p. 16). This is indicative of the progress being made by women in challenging the preconceived capabilities of their bodies. By going beyond the behaviours of gender that limit their capabilities, they are able to challenge both gender constructs and inequality in the workforce.AsMcDowell suggests, womens sexed bodies are glowering in the workplace forthe very reason that they are not meant to be there -They challenge the orderof things (1995,p.80). Not only have women challenged order through enteringthe workforce they have also challenged the very organise foundation of theorder. This provides women with the meansto break through the metaphorical glass ceilings that limit equality in theworkplace. Additionally, if women persevered with obtaining both equality andequity, it would liberate not only women but also human personality from thestraitjacket of gender (Herz & Johannson, 2015, p.1010). Therefore, byfurthering the feminist mo vement, those reinforcing hegemonic masculinity andthe institutions that enforce gendered assumptions will be disembodied. Thisincludes the governing of each individual of society through the heterosexualmatrix. THE PARADOX THAT IS GENDER equatingIn current gender studies, there are now waysto challenge gender assumptions that feed the gender pay gap. However, thegender pay gap is not in steady decline, and is expected to hold its position,if not rise in areas of managerial roles (WGEA, 2017, p. 6). As individuals areprovided with the previously mentioned means to challenge the reification ofgender binaries, the institutional fastness over sex and gender conceptionstightens, finding new ways to subvert these challenges. By merit of the fact that women are enteringthe workforce and involvementing for equal pay, hegemonic masculinity is weakened.Because of this, institutions use any perceived gender equality improvements toset the fight back, rather than enhance it. This can be se en through the concept of attribution of capacity enunciated by Angela McRobbie (2007). This attribution of capacity refers to the freedom given to women in the workforce. In a post-feminist context, women are provided with roles of accountability and autonomy, with the expectation of embodying a strong, can-do attitude to work. However, McRobbie argues that these improvements are instead reinscription of hegemonic masculinity, leading to drawbacks in the fight for equal pay. Women are invited to recognise themselves as privileged subjects and are expected to be grateful for achieving (with a fight) the fundamental human right of equality (McRobbie, 2007, p, 722). As institutions have relinquished this control over who enters the workforce, they apply new barriers under the faade of equality. Women are now expected to be accomplished subjects who can come forward, however this is only on the condition that feminism fades extraneous despite neither equality nor equity being achieve d (McRobbie, 2007, p.720). Therein lies what Raewyn Connell refers to as the patriarchal dividend, which is the advantage given to men as a base from maintaining inequality within society (2009). Monetary income from the workforce is just one of the benefits, in addition to respect, safety, institutional power and autonomy. (Connell, 2009, p.142). From the reinforcement of hegemony, the patriarchal dividend and gender binaries within society as a response to feminist movements, women are once again placed back into the labels and categories that they first sought to course from, subverting years of feminist work. Additionally, the critique of the VirginAtlantic 25 years Still blistery highlights the drawback that women face inthe postfeminist struggle for equality (Duffy et al., 2016). The oblige critiquesthe marketing strategies used to evoke idealised gender appearances in apostmodern context in order to facilitate the perpetuation of gender binaries. Theadvertisement ultimate ly utilises good old-fashioned sexism whilesimultaneously distancing themselves from it, which suggests that theinstitutions that seek to retain a hold over postmodern feminism have utilisedthe newfound freedom of women and bent it to their will, making women slaves intheir own emancipation (Duffy et al., 2016, p. 266). CONCLUSIONUltimately, by examining the structures within the contemporary workforce, the gender pay gap has been critically analysed. By examining the institutionalised gender binaries entrenched within society, the root causes of the gender pay gap have been established and evaluated. The analysis reveals that through heteronormativity and the enforcement of gender binaries, the gender pay gap is perpetually reified, with womb-to-tomb effects. Although Butler provides an outlet for change through challenging these binaries, the institutional stronghold over the sexed body and its link to societal outcomes proves to be bang in place, as discussed by a key theorist canvas within the unit, Angela McRobbie.REFERENCE LIST1. Bartholomaeus,C (2013) Colluding With or Challenging Hegemonic maleness.Australian FeministStudies, vol. 28, pp. 279-293. 2. Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M (2016) Lifetime disadvantage, discrimination and the gendered workforce. Cambridge University press. 3. 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