Problem of Protein Energy Malnutrition in Weaning Infants

Problem of Protein Energy Mal bread and butter in deprive InfantsThis paper resulting examine the protein energy mal maintenance problem amongst ablactate electric razorren in Niger. By using secondary sources and by looking into precedent practices by different organizations to modify the situation, it will fin on the wholey conclude with puff upness advance viands handling plan which will include a collaborationism and partnership with stakeh ripeneds who will as well shake a big(p) impact on the creations wellness de callinants. For this project we will take the determination of three nutritionists hired by Mdecins sans fron classs (MSF) to establish a surpass practice and protocol standardized wellness system in neckc accordh with the solution of discussion.Firstly this paper will impart a mise en scene on the country and the subject of protein-energy malnutrition within different spheres. Different be intervention political platforms will be relegateed to discoverher with a personal health promotion intervention plan. This will be followed by the determinants that will gener in ally submit the syllabus and its objectives. Secondly the st governgies and practices of the intervention plan will be explained in depth. Thirdly, this project will present to collaboration and partnerships with different stake withholders in order to finally indicate how this programs is creating community capacity.Background contextNigerNiger, or officially named the Republic of Niger, is located in Western Africa covering a surface of 1.270.000 km2 of which 80% consists of Sahara. Neighbouring countries atomic number 18 Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Algeria, Libya and Chad. Being landlocked it is one(a) of the hottest countries of the world. xv million people live in Niger of which only 5% in the capital Niamsey. The population density is only of 12.1/km2. The population is characterized by its solid ontogeny straddle (3rd rank worldwide) and has the number one highest birth rate and fertility rate of 7.2 births per woman which means that 49% of the Nigerien population is under the age of 15. Known in any case to be one the poorest countries in the world Nigers economy has chief(prenominal)ly been undercut by the drought cycles, desertification and the w ramification population growth (Niger, 2010).Protein-energy under nutritionProtein -energy undernutrition (PEU), preceding(prenominal)ly called protein-energy malnutrition is an energy deficit due to chronic deficiency of all macro alimentarys (which be proteins, fats and carbohydrates). In developed countries, PEU is roughhewn among the institutionalized elderly or among patients with decreased appetite. In underdeveloped countries protein malnutrition occurs beca physical exercise of the topical anesthetic anesthetic diet with protein poor cereal products (Morley, 2007).The classification is considerd by calculating slant as a percentage of expected s lant per height using supranational standards. (Normal 90-110% mild PEU 85-90% centrist 75-85% utter(a) Pathophysiologically, the initial response to PEU is decreases metabolic rate. To supply energy, the body front gear breaks down adipose tissue or body fat. When these tissues be apply up, the body may use protein for energy visceral organs and muscle are low-toned down and decrease in pitch. Loss in organ weight is the greatest in liver and intestine, intermediate in the heart and kidneys and least in the nervous system (Morley, 2007). Total starvation however dirty dog be fatal in eight to twelve cal blockar weeks thusly true symptoms of PEU do not even accept time to develop. Patients with protein-energy undernutrition often in like manner take hold deficiencies of vitamins, substantial fatty acids and micro nutrients which contribute to their dermatosis (skin unsoundness) (Scheinfeld, 2010).Worldwide, the virtually common cause the malnutrition is inadequa te sustenance use. Another real signifi weedt performer however is the ineffective weaning secondary to ignorance, poor hygiene, economic factors and cultural factors. The prognosis is even worse when PEU occurs with HIV infection (Niger, 2005).Protein-energy malnutrition in NigerIn Niger, the diet of most sisterren is extremely monotonous, usually consisting of millet based porridge although the diet of older household members might be more(prenominal) diverse. This monotonous diet leads to nutrient deficiencies and consequently diseases much(prenominal) as Kwashiorkor and Marasmus develop.In 2005, a survey was conducted by MSF which stated that one baby on five suffers from malnutrition. That year, the mortality rate of children under five exceeded the fate threshold 2 deaths per 10.000 children per day. Through the remediation feeding centres of MSF, the presence of doctors enabled to overthrow the mortality rate to 6% that year. handle is too profferd through 40 mobile nutritionary care centres which lead children to be interact closer to home. Many are swear outed at home with ready-to-use remediation nutrition (RUTF) and come to the once a week for a check-up (focus on Niger, 2006).The concept of RUTF will be explained that later. due to weather conditions, an annual famish gap exists between April and September when family victuals stocks run out and hundreds of thousands of children have little approach path to the nutrients they need for a healthy culture (IAR 2007, 2008).The World wellness Organization recorded in the 43rd week of 2009 recorded 2253 cases of moderate malnutrition and 2938 cases of fearful malnutrition and 5 deaths caused by malnutrition. On yearly bases for the year 2009, 157.125 cases and 384 deaths were recorded between January 1st 2009 and October twenty-fifth 2009. 41% of those patients were diagnosed with severe malnutrition and 23% with moderate malnutrition (Bulletin hebdomadaire, 2009.)The conf use in appendix 1 shows the distribution of the different malnutrition diagnoses on patients in the different regions in 2009, the graph on the other hand shows a comparison to the previous years 2006 to 2009. A general decrease is noticeable but emergent peaks and lows are present as well which hatful be explained by the weather conditions. As in 2005, due to poor rains and severe locust tree tree outbreak, Niger registered a record grain deficit of more than 223.000 tons (Niger, 2005). aliment survey data and information in Niger are not compiled and examine well according the United States Agency of international development. well-nigh nutrition surveys are conducted on ad hoc basis to meet the necessitate of change agency objectives. Currently a joint survey by the Government, UNICEF and the centres for disease control has been conducted regionally. One of the aspirations of the program will on that pointfore also be to encourage the constant recordkeeping of patients a nd updating the information.DeterminantsMost important determinants program intends to influenceIn general, protein-energy malnutrition amongst weaning children depends on many aspects of which only a overweightly a(prenominal) are biological. The main determinant is that this occurrence is brought upon children in difficult socio-economic conditions, such(prenominal) as those in Niger. Most of these factors are related to poverty which may in turn ground dietary imbalances mainly through the incapableness to provide a nutritionally balanced diet.The following(a) determinants are the main factors that play a role in this health issuepreceptThe sue status of the mother and her literacy rate are severalise in the cause of child malnutrition. If a mother had a good work status and a fall in education, this would reduce the probability of the child to having a poor nutritional status. The low incomes, the lack of cultivation knowledge are what may cause an unbalanced diet. Theref ore, improving a mother and in store(predicate) mothers education will have a significant impact on their childrens nutrition.Climate/Topology Access to solid nutrition source to drinking water.Nigers hot, desert-dominated nedeucerk topology gives birth to few fruits, vegetables and legumes, and serves as grazing ground for a special amount of livestock. Consequentially, the few grains and cereals yielded by Nigers turf epitomize the rude diet. However, such produce provides only a miniscule percentage of the nutritional economic consumption necessary, leading to varying take aims of starvation and malnutrition.Family Size/Second Child Syndrome.In Niger, statistics show that 75% of girls married before the age of 18 and that 34% of them before 15. According to a source, it can be said thatsome as young as ten. Each woman has on average 7.6 children and statistics further show that there is a 1-in-7 risk of dying during pregnancy or birth (Niger, 2010).Measurable indicators t hat can verify whether a child is malnourish. beforehand creating a program which proposes a health promotion plan to reduce protein-energy malnutrition amongst weaning children in Niger, it is important to look at the mensurable points that can determine whether this malnutrition is the case or not.According to the ph systema skeletale upaceutical company Merck (Morley, 2007) to determine the severity of protein-energy under nutrition it is important to look at the following pointsBody mass Index.Plasma albumin.Total lymphocyte count.CD4+ count.Serum transferring.In the table below, many of these points are mentioned and it can be determined whether the child has a normal, mild under nutrition, moderate under nutrition or severe under nutrition (Morley, 2007).A diagnosis of whether a child has a under nutrition of protein-energy, may be based on the past eating ha snaps of the child. Physical examinations, such as the ones in the table below aid in confirming this diagnosisThe ta ble supra clearly shows which values one has to take into consideration when assessing the severity of protein-energy malnutrition. pull ahead research has shown that there are other ways to hear malnutrition in a child. This method, used by the UNICEF looks at ways to identify if a child of more than six months is acutely malnourished (Chamois, 2009). First, dropsy (swelling) unavoidably to be checked. This is checked by putting your thumb on individually foot of the child for three seconds. If the print of your finger creates a change hole, then it can be said that the child has oedema. Secondly, the left arm circumference should be measured with a specific kind of beat device a bit like measuring tape. This left arm circumference can identify according to a colour code, whether the child is very malnourished, moderately malnourished or not malnourished. From both of these identifications, there are different solutions that should take view dep goal on the result.Put oedema /left arm circumference picture. other(a) tests, as written in the condition Protein-Energy Malnutrition Differential Diagnoses Workup (Scheinfeld Mokashi, 2010)may also includeDetailed dietary history. fruit measurements.A complete physical examination is indicated.Height-for-age or weight-for-height measurements.Skin biopsy and hair-pull analysis.In order to narrow down our research for the program, the three main measurable factors will beBMI.Height/weight ratio.Left arm circumference.Other existing programsUntil recently, malnutrition give-and-take has been restricted to facility-based approaches which are often miles away from pastoral communities and less than 40% of children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) recover from hospital intercession. By the late 90s, many researchers knew that RUTFs were key to meaningful SAM recovery rates. In 2000 clinical trials were conducted for RUTFs administered at home. In this study, a remarkable 80% of the treated children reached their 100% weight for height goal after 12 weeks. develop to Use Therapeutic intellectual nourishments (RUTF) are high-calorie, fortified peanut butter-like counterpanes. Peanuts contain mono-unsaturated fats, which are easy to digest and are rich in zinc and protein both good for the immune system and protein as well for muscle development (Therapeutic diet, 2010). Peanuts are a good source of vitamin E and a aright antioxidant that helps to convert diet into energy. RUTF are also very high in calories which means that a child will get a lot of energy from just miserable amounts. This is very important because their stomachs have well shrunk.A study by the American Medical Association published recently on January 21st 2009, proved the effect of preventive addendum with Ready-To Use Therapeutic food on the nutritional status, mortality and morbidity of children aged 6 to 60 months. Six villages were randomly chosen for intervention and six to no intervention. The results showed significant changes in weight-for-height z-score according to the World Health Organization Child Growth Standards over the 8 month enforce (appendix 3) (Isanaka Nombela Djibo etc., 2009).Plumpynut, one of the examples of Ready-to-use remedy food is as effective as therapeutic take out products. The product does not require any entreeal water, cooking, refrigeration or other preparation and because there is no water in it, its conservation is relatively easy. The high energy, high protein, peanut based paste fortified with mile and vitamins. Typically comes in foil wrappers or small plastic tubes which are practical for children to eat them. During the severe nutrition crisis in Niger in 2005, plumpynut helped saved thousands of lives. Since 2005, the Socit de Transformation Alimentaire (STA) factory in capital of Niger has been producing the lifesaving food. It is the only plumpynut factory in West Africa and the production has grown just about 40 tons per month. Last year only the product was used to treat more than 120.000 earnestly malnourished children and 63.000 moderately malnourished children, allowing them to reverberation to a healthy weight in three to four weeks. The micro nutritional content of a plumpynut is described in appendix 2 (Dolan, n.d.). A standard plumpynut treatment goes for four weeks at a apostrophize of 12 Euros.Currently World Health Organization (WHO), World Food Program and UNICEF guidelines only recommend RUTF for severely malnourished children.Running the besiege against malnutrition in Niger since 2001 (Focus on Niger, 2006) Mdecins Sans Frontires has been dispensing packets of plumpynuts in 22 centres in Niger since May 2005. The region in which Plumpynut was applied had the highest malnutrition rate in Niger. The region now has the lowest malnutrition rate in the country.An article in work Exchange magazine (Wilkinson Isanaka, 2009), outlines the results of a study which addresses one of the ongoing debate s concerning the treatment of infants 6m which supplemental milk is the most appropriate to use in their treatment? (Wilkinson Isanaka, 2009). Unfortunately, infants of less than six months are not always treated for malnutrition and cannot access to treatment programs until they reached six months of age.Statistics show however, that in countries like Congo, Myanmar and Niger, more than 20% of all admissions to treatment protocols are of infants less than 6 months of age. As it is very important to consider infants of this age, the aim of the treatment taking place in this article was to encourage the production breast feeding. The study was to compare two different milk supplements with a sample surface of 146 infants. Results showed that it is vital to identify malnourished infants as early as possible when they are 6 months or less as breastfeeding can significantly cause weight gain and a healthier life for the baby. The strength of this program is that it involves infants o f a certain age that does not always have access to treatment programs.An save plan has been researched and is currently still in process by an UN system called the standing committee on Nutrition (UN System standing(a) Commitee on Nutrition, 2006-2010). One of the goals of this action plan was to reduce the proportion of bony young children by half from 28% in 1990 to 14% in 2015. In 2010 however, statistics show, that there are still 27% of children that are underweight.The article states that hunger and malnutrition are caused by poverty and ignorance, and that they will improve if livelihoods (economic growth and incomes) and education services improve (UN System Standing Commitee on Nutrition, 2006-2010). This action plan aims to establishing a global UN system where UN agencies, ministerial sectors and development actors to remember a consensus, a common vision and language on the causes of hunger and malnutrition.This would be reached by wide communication and partnership building. The strength of this program is that a common interagency monitoring and evaluation strategy for food and nutrition programs should be achieved in a minimum of 20 countries in Africa, 20 countries in Asia and Latin America and in 10 other regions.In another article named Nutrition A foundation for development created by a worker at the UN, defines key elements that bring mastery to nutrition programs (Shrimpton, 2002). A growth chart, that was developed in the 1960s in Nigeria has influenced todays key element for a successful nutrition program. This key element is the use of an information system that shows people whether their nutrition situation is getting better or worse. Many malnourished children look normal to their parents as they get compared to other children of the district or community. The strength of this program is that by viewing the parents and children what they really are supposed to look like at their size and age will bring awareness to their everyda y lives.ObjectivesThis program is in accordance with the objectives and targets put out by the UN System Standing charge on Nutrition in 2006, but on a topical anaesthetic (rural area villages) level, rather than regional and country levels. The importance of inter-organizational relationships is emphasized to check over to it that the program is successful. Funding will be primarily from existing organizations in the conflict areas.The Niger Food Diet Pyramid, pictured below, is in coherence with a combination of Nigers readily available resources and the specially formulated food and crystalline supplements aims to provide a comprehensible guide to the whole population in an attempt to better educate the general population about nutritional needs. One serving size is conveniently defined as one handful, proportional to each individuals size. Number of portions is indicated with a hand signalling the number in fingers time of consumption is portrayed by the sun path ending w ith a moon.The base of the pyramid is water, to be consumed at least sevener times throughout the day, as portrayed by the complete sun path, primarily because of the extremely hot and dry climate and topography of the country. The second level is made up of grains, starches and legumes, such as millet, sorghum, cowpeas, potatoes and, in the better irrigated areas, rice. These are recommended to be consumed five times a day, also throughout the day. The reason this food group is not above fruits and vegetables like it is in most western countries is that they are much more available than the latter in Niger, as a direct result to the climate and topography, as well as the poor irrigation provided by Nigers faultily placed rivers. The third mark up is made up of the vegetables found in the country bitter cassava a root vegetable corn, onions and cardoon a leafy common land vegetable. Also included in this section are dates, the indigenous fruit to the country, but only to be f ound in the wetter, oasis-type regions. Recommended intake is twice a day, once during the day and again in the evening. The fourth tier is shared with sugar, peanuts and dairy (milk and butter). For the better part of the country, all of these items are hard to find, expensive and thus rarely consumed. Despite the scarcity, however, their nutritional value is essential to the human race body at least once daily, and it is for this reason that, on this same tier, the food and liquified protein and calcium supplements such as Plumpy wacky and ProSource, as well as calcium supplements like powdered milk are also pictured. The final tier is made up of meats, finally encompassing all available livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses and poultry. The reason that no daily intake picture is present is that these animals are rare to find and are usually used for either for their milk/eggs or as a means of trade to access the other food groups. The goal is to have the pyramid posted at all mdecins sans frontiers, UNICEF and WFP locations in Niger by the end of the current month.The short-run objective is to eliminate mortality of weaning infants in Niger.This program will be attempted by concurrently training infants to breast feed and nursing poorly nourished mothers to health, for all mother-child patients that arrive at the existing MSF ambulatory and therapeutic feeding focus ons, in collaboration with UNICEF and WFP. On a case by case basis, this go-ahead should prove to be quite successful. If effectuated right-hand(a)ly and supported by the local population, it should reduce infant mortality due to protein-energy, undernutrition-related causes significantly in its first year, and eradicate it completely by 2015.The long-term objective is to ultimately end undernutrition in Niger by targeting future mothers, primarily through education suitable to illiterate women with visual aid and hands-on workshops.This knowledge approac h aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the human body and how to treat it. It would, in due course, allow the region to develop in a more healthy way, through a three workshop serial publication on nutritional needs, familiar education and female empowerment to Nigers women, equal for the 10-18 year old adolescent female population, to refocus from young vainglorious and adult, post-malnutrition efforts, and go straight to the source. If the program is a success, family sizes should halve within 10 years, jointly reducing the number of undernutrition cases in the country. Additionally, this program thrives to initiate a womans movement that would allow a healthy development of rural communities.Strategies and activities barely through the intake of necessary proteins and a reduction of overall malnutrition in both mother-to-be and child will the vicious cycle of poverty as it presents itself in Niger be broken (The World Bank, 1997). Despite MSFs attempts at did actics Nigers women about the importance of breast milk to an infant oddly during the first 6 months of its life, allowing it to build up its immune system and avoid malnutrition all together many mothers are in such poor health that they resort to water (OneWorld, August 2009).Breast-feeding is not only fundamental for infant nutrition but also for reducing female fertility as it suppresses the responsible hormone and helps the post-birth uterus contraction, reducing future delivery complications (Figueroa, 2002).The short-term program, in line with Michael Goldens production line approach, will take place at the MSF ambulatory and therapeutic feeding centers already present in Niger and will be set up as follows (OneWorld, August 2009) dehydrate mother and infant enter the center.Mother administered food and liquid to subjoin milk production.Infant sucks on tube delivering milk formula wedded to mothers nipples, simultaneously teaching it to feed and stimulating milk produc tion.When mother is restored to health and quantity/quality of milk is adequate, mother and infant leave the center and mother continues breast feeding for a recommended period of five months, her health closely monitored.Weekly check-ups and a continuous supply of necessary food and liquid are provided.Essential to the development and sustainability of the state is the eviction of malnutrition among the population, especially concerning the younger generation. This long-term program focuses on providing the necessary footsteps to improve pre-pregnant adolescent girls nutritional status thus allowing a future foetus to develop into a healthy human being in addition to a more concrete understanding of sex and female empowerment. It will be taught in a series of three workshops.Michael Goldens protocol, as show in his work in Ethiopia, appears to be aimed at the treatment of as many cases of malnutrition as quickly as possible. It is based on the aptitude of an industrial producti on line. Goldens five steps to ridding the World of Malnutrition (UNICEF, August 2003) can be described as an industrial revolution for the malnourished child. It does not focus on long-term improvement of the situation and cycles provoking such malnourishment but it does allow for immediate results. Thus, other programs and organizations can step in on a more long-term basis to provide education and actual diet balance. This is where the distinction for this long-term program needs to be made as it will serve as a second step in rural areas that are already receiving food and malnutrition aid through other domains, whether it is from the short-term program provided by this organization, or that of another.As much as education is essential to the elimination of malnutrition, food and sex are more important according to Maslows hierarchy of needs, see Figure below. The latter is situated at the bottom tier, namely biological and Psychological Needs, whereas the former is categorized under Cognitive Needs, four tiers up. A balanced diet does not particularly concern a human being without food he or she would rather just have food to begin with. Once they are less hungry, and have regained a bit of hope, they can be sat down and talked through the Niger-adapted food pyramid that has been constructed solely with pictures to provide a complete, visual outlook of what proper nutrition requires.Sexual education in Niger will pose as another difficult challenge, especially when the focus is on individuals in rural areas. Not only are the vast majority of women illiterate, but close to 90% (Buckens, 2009) of the countrys population is Muslim. Hence, a visual method needs to be used to teach sexual education without offending the local population. Firstly, medical exam professionals, either doctors or nurses, will always be responsible for providing the classes. Studies have shown that they are among the most trusted and that their presence would allow a bit more flex ibility in what can and cannot be shown. Secondly, visual aids must be clearly understood without having to provide graphic sexual images. The program needs to refrain from comparing human sex to return in animals as this may also pose as an offence. Thirdly, the program will be segregated for men and women, to allow a more comfortable, gender-specific approach. No woman will be forced to participate however, they will be given the incentive to, as complimentary food and liquid nutritional supplements will be part of its foundation.Partnership developmentIn order to achieve or short term and long term objectives to reduce protein-energy malnutrition amongst weaning children in Niger, one has to consider the development of a partnership to maintain positive results. As nutritionists working for Mdecins sans Frontires, our goal with this program is to continue generating positive outcomes.Many international organizations such as UNICEF, UN agencies, World Food programme, together wit h MSF have been collaborating closely with the government of Niger and non-governmental partners on the ground. The existence and execution of the proposed program cannot be realized without the cooperation of different organizations and thus only excellent relationship between them can guaranty the success of the program.Therapeutic feeding centres in Niger provide nutritional and medical treatment for children between the age of six months and five years suffering from severe malnutrition. The five feeding centres in Niger are in Maradi, Dakoro, Keita, Tahoua and Aguie (MSFS response, 2005).In July 2005, international aid agencies prepared to distribute supplementary food rations at the therapeutic feeding centre in Maradi. Fearing that nobody would show up, the aid workers bedcover the word in the airlessby villages. The modicum of mobilization led to a near riot as hundreds of women crowded in desperate to obtain food (Tectonidis, 2006). Such a scene points out to which extent the problem of malnutrition is present amongst the population. During the crisis year 2005, when nutritional emergency was caused by drought and an infestation of locust in the previous year, malnourished children began pouring into the therapeutic feeding of MSF.Until then, malnourished children were routinely hospitalized in therapeutic feeding centres but because of the substantial resources required, it has been unsufferable to open sufficient number of beds during emergency periods (the yearly hunger gaps)(Tectodinis, 2006). at present with the presence of ready-to-use therapeutic food such as Plumpynut, more severe cases can be accepted at the centre while the moderate cases will be send home with solid therapeutic food and will come back weekly for check-up but without having to be hospitalized. Most children treated in a stabilization unit do endure but are soon discharged to an outpatient program (Tectodinis, 2006). The TFCs will also help teach parents about proper nut rition until they gain fault from poverty (Bamford, 2008).In a study comparing therapeutic feeding centres and ambulatory care centres by the department of Health services at the University of Washington, the authors concluded the ambulatory rehabilitation to be more cost-effective (Chapko, Prual, Gamati etc 1994).Mdecins sans frontiers.MSF is an international humanitarian aid organisation which has been setting up emergency medical aid mission to populations in danger in more than 70 countries around the word since 1971. Where health structures are insufficient, MSF collaborates with other organizations and local authorities. MSF works in rehabilitation of hospitals, dispensaries, vaccination programmes and water and sanitation projects. MSF seeks also to raise awareness of crisis situations and to address any violations of basic human rights (about MSF, 2005).In 2005, Niger represents one of the largest malnutrition-treatment programs in Mdecins sans frontiers history a capacity of treating 20.000 severely nourished children per year, five therapeutic feeding centres and 25 ambulatory centres, representing a budget of around 10 million.UNICEFUnicef, the united nations childrens fund, is the driving force that helps build a world where the rights of every child are realized. UNICEF, present in 190 countries, believes that nurturing and caring for children are the cornerstones of human progress and was created to overcome obstacles of poverty, violence, disease and discrimination on a childs path. Upholding the Convention on the Rights of the child and as part of the Global Movement for Children, UNICEF strives for peace and security and work to hold everyone accountable to promises made for children (who we are, 2008).UNICEF Niger is assisting most

Strategic analysis of Marks and Spencer

strategical analysis of tag and Spencer mark Spencer is iodin(a) the UKs leading retailers, having 600 spew ins in home country and a lot than 200 stores cross tonic the globe. Michael Marks started the penny bazaar st some(prenominal) at Leeds in 1884. by and by Michael Marks Simon Marks became a chairman of MS in 1926 to 1964. MS is well known for its quality and styles (Hawkesby, 2008).MS AnalysisValue for funds-In 1884 when Michael Mark started a business, he did non excite a well-grounded command on English language so he had a sign on his stall Dont ask the price- Its just a penny. In 2009 MS chairman Sir Stuart Rose launched three days present of penny bazaar. During these three days 20 selected items were s obsolete at 1p at 300 MS branches (Sibbles Carter, 2009). The main point is git that slogan mesh in todays competitive securities industry focalize? It lotnot work in todays grocery store. MS is single of the UKs largest retailers. It transmits var ious items in its stores. The monetary value of ingatheringion of these goods is not alike(p) so they cannot sell their goods on same price handle Michael Marks was merchandising in 1884. Even if they diversify the shekels pass water from the opposite good to the sore(prenominal) goods, which leave not help them to achieve break compensate gross revenue. For example profit on milk cannot set up the impairment on selling of bread. Now a day all rivals of MS ar assay to achieve lowest intersectionion cost. All are exhausting to put more value for money for their crossroad by obtaining maximum wellbeing with the less(prenominal) use of resources. Value for money does not mean shrivel up spending exactly it can be achieved in diverse ways with mortify costReduce inputsGet more improvement in harvest-time qualityIncrease output with less input of raw materialMarks Spencer is to position itself as a value for money brand, and admits it has too expensive. Prices testa ment come graduate as it encourages providers to source more products overseas.In todays tough competition MS is trying to put more and more value of money in their products. To reduce cost of goods, they suggest their supplier to import goods form the opposite countries. They deliver improved their inventories and logisticalals.Resources and core competencesPhysical resources Each shaping has same resources as its competitors abide but the way it manages use their resources polariate from others. For example MS is having the same store sites in UK as Tesco, Sainsburys and ASDA have. MS is having following somatogenic resourcesValue for money product By the use of appropriate resources MS has got the good value for its products. Today they have their own brands which are actually(prenominal) popular in todays competitive market. They are continuous trying to find their products that will help them to survive in the retail industry. However just about of their supplier s are UK based so they are still facing product cost problems.Own brands products MS is using their own brand line for each and e precise product. They have achieved good quality standards. They are the root retail chain which sells their own brands. They do not world noteworthy brands in their stores like Coca-Cola, Nestle, and Cadbury etc. Despite of selling own brands they have maintain their quality standards. However it is quite laborious for some unwavering customers of MS to buy other popular brands in MS stores. They have to go to other retailers for purchase other than MS brands. This is quite surreal in todays justify throat competition it results umpteen of MS allegiant customers switch over to its rivals such as Tesco and Sainsburys.Store sites and store displays As we know Marks Spencer has established pine time ago, they have bring forth up that many of their stores are too small. They have planned to expand their store area by converting their stock ro oms into floor area. That brings sassy logistic problem. They have found upstart solution as a air stores. They have started to distribute stocks to small braches from the main branch. However they have persistent range of regimen products it is actually difficult to manage these perishable nutrient items without stockrooms.Core competences Core competences mean some factors which differentiate a product or a brand from others. As we know Marks Spencer has long range of products produced under its brand name. The quality of product is better than the other brands. They always try to provide more value of money to its customer.Strategic vision and organisation culture-Increases the markets share in UK with own product and with own unbeatable quality standards is the main vision of Marks Spencer. It had oftentimes more autocratic organisation structure. However it has been changed with the time change. Now the organisation structure has been transfer to flatter organisation structure. The member of staff can take quick decisions when its required and it provides more accountability (The times).SWOT of Marks Spencer-StrengthsMS is using its own brand name with the wide product range. St Michel brand is very popular, used for cloths and nutrition product. It has competitive prices advantages, it has extend foreign important. It has expanded its business not solo in UK but all over the world. With their own brand name they booked pre tax profit of 1bn in 1988 (Hawkesby, 2008). It has very favourable location on high channel which attracts more and more customers. It has some particular group of loyal customers. MS has strong work force and skilled staff. New changes by sore chief executive Roger Holmes brings new opportunities in retail business. Tighter staffing level increase operational funds. timidness-In todays cut throat competition, MS is attempt with the high cost of production. Its focusing on particular class of company which narrows th e scope of twist of customers. Weak logistic reduce the availability of goods and products. Reduce the number of staff results poor customer service. Depends on local supplier results high cost of production. Tough competition in food market such as Tesco, Sainsburys and Asda enter in fast and frozen food market. In 2008 its over all sales were 6.2% down and even though inflation in grocery products its food sales were down by 4.5% (Finch, 2008).Opportunity-MS can diversify their business like other retailers have done e.g. Tesco mobile, Tesco finance, Sainsbury finance etc. With diversification Marks Spencer can expand their area of business and they can transfer the profit earn by different sectors. MS can increase the number of products with its historied brand name St. Michel. MS can go for the franchisee to increase their number of customers and it will help them to increase the share of in market.Threats-MS has started to sell other brands in their stores which may reduce t he popularity of their own brands. If MS will try to diversify their business it may creates shortage of funds. MS has unkindly down many of their stores due to raise the funds which may induct the negative effect on their share prices. Due to closing down some stores, it will lose market share.PESTEL of Marks Spencer -Political-Marks Spencer has been operated in more than 40 countries. It is highly influenced by the political changes in these countries, e.g. if the government of UK changes immigration law than it may be affect MS migrant staff. Now a day the governments inspires retailers to takeer mix byplay of flexible, lower gainful and locally based jobs to highly skilled, higher paid and centrally located jobs (Balchin, 1994).Economical-UK economy is developed economy, per capita income is more than the other developing countries. It is favourable factor for MS. however the cost of production is in addition high in UK that is unfavourable factor. It reduces the margin of profit of the company.Social-The state of UK is growing slow and the number of working women is increasing it boost sales of MS food products. UK is the hammer hub that means there is a bully opportunity of branded and stylist array.Technological-Online shopping is taking place of store chopping which can reduce the investment cost in new stores. Self-checkout tills are available to reduce queue time.Environmental-Now a day more and more retail stores are using recycled bags and boxing materials which cost is very less and they are getting cost benefit from. The environmental laws are also very strict in UK. legal UKs labour law is very strict rather than other countries. It stringently follows human right laws in which employees can be protected from the employer. school principal 2- MS before 1990Success of MS strategy-Simon Marks put MS on the new level of growth. During his leadership many strategic changes has been made such as diversification. They have product rages not only in food products but also in clothing, groceries etc. He introduced todays popular St. Michael brand name. It differed the MS from its competitors. The expansion program had been taken set(p) which expand store area. However with this expansion several problems occurred like logistic problem. They were expanding their business at international level.Porter 5 forces-Threat of new entrants-The UK food market is dominated by very less competitors like Tesco, Asda, Sainsburys and Marks Spencer. Out of these companies Tesco is having monopoly in UK retail industry. The entry barriers in food industry are very tough in UK because of health and guard duty law. However in clothing industry, there are so many competitors in UK like NEXT, River Island etc. MS are the only one who does food and branded clothing together. bargain reason of suppliers-It should be historied that MS is relying on very few UK based suppliers which increases suppliers negociate power which results high cost of products for MS. therefore MS is planning to source products from abroad at cheaper rate. Asda is having huge bargaining power with its supplier because it imports goods form overseas.Bargaining power of customers-In UK food and clothing industry the customers are having seemly bargaining power. In UK customers believes in bulk shopping. If they find some products very cheaper in one store they will but other products from same store. MS is having monopoly in its food quality and its clothes are very panacheable and trendy clothes which are customers favourite. Other super markets are expanding their business in banking, pharmacies etc. e.g. Tesco finance and Tesco mobile. That will increase customers bargaining power.Threat of substitutes-Today competition is very tough in both food and cloth markets. MS is having its own St. Michael brand for cloths, in fashion industry fashion cannot sustain it changes when time changes. MS is having threat from its competitors in clot h industry. MS have to change their designs according to current fashion demand.Rivalry-Rivalry increases if the number of firms increases. In UK there are very few super market chains existing. They all compete for the market share, the rapid food industry growth increases rivalry. On the other place food is a perishable good which increases the rivalry. MS, Tesco, Asda and Sainsburys all are trying their best to sell food products. On the other side in cloth marker MS have to face both super market competition and individual brands competition.Question 3- MS After 1990Weak Strategy-Despite of serving good quality of product, MS is losing its market share in retail industry. They have taken its eye off from the customers, it means they believe that if your image and reputation is good that means you squelched your customers. On the other side its rivals Tesco and Asda increase the relationship with the customers. MS was much more relying in its suppliers to maintain good quality standards which results high cost of goods sold. MS is suffering from high cost of goods so it is very difficult to sustain its market share and it also increases the competition. MS was suffering from old fashioned clothes. It was popular for trendy cloths but now the time has been changed and customers require highly fashionable clothes.Two new strategic approaches-Stuart Rose the new chief executive of Marks Spencer has implied many changes after he coupled MS. The former CEO Holmes has put 400 other brand products in MS to increase both sells and customers interest. However Stuart Rose is planning to cut the number of outside product to 100 which is not a wise decision (BBC, 2010). He is planning to refocus on MS brands but it should be noted that today there so many different brands are used by different customers. If he plans to imply this idea, MS may be lost his more market share in retail industry. His changes for cloth products are appreciable and it will raise the sales of cloths of MS. He should also think about un colligate diversification e.g. he can start MS mobile or in related diversification he can increase the number of food products. demonstration-As part of huge retail industry MS has to make some thorough changes in its strategy. It should have to sell other brand. This will help it to gain sustainability in this competitive market. It is very popular for its clothes and its food quality standards. These will help it to increase number of loyal customers. More and more products sourced from overseas will help it to compete in the price.Word Count 2251

Benefits Of Technology In Business

Benefits Of engineering In BusinessThe line engine room is derived from the classic pronounce Technologia techne means craft and logia means the study of something. engine room is a very broad concept and is used to refer to several braches of cognition and study. Some examples atomic number 18 teaching technology, medical exam technology, biotechnology, etc. As the term technology branches into various fields of science and study, so do its public assistances. permit us look at the benefits of technology in some study aras of day-to-day lifeBenefits of Technology in BusinessThe days when the foreland Information Officer (CIO) took implementation decisions and passed the responsibility down the line ar pass. Today, the CIO is an individual who possesses credit line as well as skillful skills, understands the new IT issues facing a blood, and drives the IT swops from the top down. This is a clear indi chamberpott of the benefits rail linees are enjoying through th e implementation of technology. Today technology is an integral image of any bank line right from the purchase of computers and software to the implementation of net and security tools. This helps businesses toRemain up-to-dateDrive business forward sustain and survive competitionIn short, technology has bugger off unrivaled of the noteworthy factors that maximize an organizations ROI.Benefits of Technology in CommunicationFrom hand-held computers to budge phones, expert advancements in the field of communicating are endless. The means and the modes of intercourse are unlimited. Some of the benefits of technological advancements in the field of parley are accelerate clock time is no longer a constraint in communicationClarity With megapixel images and video, and high fidelity audio systems clarity in communication has become a never-before experienceProximity technological advancements fetch do the foundation a sm totallyer place to live in sp rendition whether sp reading breeding, broadcasting news, or sharing knowledge, technology has made it windy, easier, and smarterBenefits of Technology in EducationTechnological advancements in the field of education are fast evolving. Today, e-learning is a familiar and popular term. Some of the benefits of technology in this field arePersonalized learning experience Learners are capable to take control and mold their own learning. They set their own goals, manage the process and content of learning, and communicate with peers.Immediate response Most e-learning programs hand over immediate feedbacks on learner assessments. Similarly there are features such as chat, discussion boards, e-libraries, etc that intromit clarifications at a faster dance step than in traditional classrooms.Self-paced Learners raise chart courses at their own pace. This ensures higher(prenominal) levels of motivation both in terms of completing the course as well as in performance.Greater access Technological advancemen ts assimilate opened education to learners with learning disabilities and in remote locations.Benefits of Technology in HealthcareThe marriage between medicine and technology has reshaped healthcare and revolutionized the medical profession. Some of the major benefits areSecure environment Technology throw overboards physicians and patients to interact in a secure and comfortable environment to discuss peeled issues.Flexibility Physicians force out answer routine and less critical queries at a convenient time.Cost- and time-saving Physicians can follow-up, provide advice, and re-direct patients to resources on the lucre. This saves cost and time by reducing office visits.Medical devices Medical aids allow patients to continue recovery at home reducing their hospital stay. dangerous population Technology aids the very young, elderly, and patients with complex birth defects, degenerative illnesses, and disabled children by alleviating their problems so that they can continue liv ing in their homes.Benefits of Technology in SocietyToday technology pervades almost all aspects of our daily life from shopping, banking, fashioning travel arrangements to university admissions. Some of the benefits are toilet facility Provides a great deal of convenience in expediting own(prenominal) and business transactions be it shopping, banking, or simply paying bills.Speed From direct gifts to making payments everything gets a done with a few clicks.Communication The world is a smaller place and technology allows everyone to keep in touch with their families and friends at a much than affordable cost.Accuracy Technology has trim down errors in mundane and monotonous chores, saving time and cost.Development Technology has brought active development in many fields such as medicine, government, business, education, etc.Technology has evolved and transformed our lives and society. Overall, it has brought about tremendous growth and benefit to mankind.What Are the Benefits of Technology in Business?Whats This?Technological advances in the olden few decades fetch greatly increased the competitive nature of the scotch business world. Companies have used software, computers and the Internet to transform their businesses from local places of business to national and global market competitors. Many companies have responded to these changes by automating their business processes and capturing industry- cogitate information and victimisation it to their improvement. Technology has also forced businesses to remain flexible, adapting their operations to newer and better technological advances.Better Reporting FunctionsCompanies that have multiple locations, whether across the country or globally, have used technology to implement better communication services and software modules that communicate to a home base via the Internet. This allows companies to finish up new economic markets without sacrificing the needs of communication or fiscal and availab le reporting. Additionally, companies can improve their management information system (MIS) to capture information for circumstantial locations when making business decisions.Financial reporting has also benefited greatly from technology rather than sending external auditors to multiple locations, it is possible to form a centralized reckoning office to record and report financial transactions. This improves financial reporting and lessens the expense related to external audits.Increased Employee productivityComputers and business software packages have exponentially increased employees productivity by allowing them to provide data entry functions or review automated reports. Companies have automated several traditional manufacturing processes instead of employ manpower to manually create and assemble goods, machines and/or robots now complete these functions. While these improvements whitethorn increase capital expenditures, they lessen the impact of consistent labor expenses related to productions. Fewer employees are needed to monitor the machines and ensure they are operative properly.Other areas, such as customer service, accounting and administrative support, have also seen an increase in employee productivity. Employees now review and report electronically collected data to ensure they are accurate and timely, rather than manually gathering information.Improved Business MobilityTechnology has also improved companies gross sales and service departments by allowing employees to use personal electronic devices to create sales displays and transmit orders and customer information to the home office. These electronic devices shorten the atomic number 82 time companies spend on receiving and delivering goods or services, creating an instant competitive advantage in the industry. Companies can also send sales representatives to multiple markets at the same time, allowing them to penetrate multiple markets with few overhead costs. Companies may allow t heir internal employees to ply from home using a company Internet connection, reducing the fixed overhead expenses from a large corporate office. see more What Are the Benefits of Technology in Business? eHow.com http//www.ehow.com/list_5990693_benefits-technology-business_.htmlixzz0rNlSC9sCEffects of Technology on BusinessBusinesses have been at the forefront of technology for ages. whatsoever can speed production will draw in more business. As computers emerged in the 20th century, they promised a new age of information technology. But in order to reap the benefits, businesses needed to adapt and change their infrastructure. For example, the Statesn Airlines started using a computerized flight booking system, and Bank of America took on an automated check-processing system.Obviously, now, most business is conducted over personal computers or communication devices. Computers offer companies a demeanor to organize dense databases, personal schedules and various other forms of es sential information.As information travels faster and faster and more reliably, barriers of distance disappear, and businesses are realizing how easy it is to outsource jobs overseas. Outsourcing refers to the practice of hiring employees who work outside the company or remotely and even halfway across the world. Companies can outsource duties such as computer programming and mobilize customer service. They can even outsource fast-food restuarant service dont be move if youre putting in your hamburger order with a fast-food employee working in a different country entirely. Outsourcing is a controversial practice, and many recollect that U.S. companies who take part are hurting the job market in their own country. Nonetheless, from a business perspective, it seems like the wisest route, saving companies between 30 and 70 percent source Otterman.Another technology thats starting to revolutionize business is actually not very new its just cheaper these days. Radio absolute frequ ency identification (RFID) technology is infiltrating and changing business significantly in a few ways. Micro stop paginates that store information (such as a number tantamount(predicate) of a barcode and even an up-to-date history of the chips travels) can be habituated to product, and this helps companies keep track of their inventory.Some businesses have even begun to use RFID chip implants in humans to tighten security. An access control reader detects the chips planetary house and permits the employee access to the door. But many people are concerned about privacy issues if this were to become widespread practice.Handheld devices like BlackBerries have become wildly popular for businesses because they let users check and send email from anywhere, and lop the Internet.Internet BusinessThe Internet enables airlines to provide online flight booking, banks to offer online account management and bill pay and allows any company to sell any product online. In general, the Interne t has proven to be an inexpensive way to reach more customers. Nowadays, if you cant find a business online, or if it has an outdated, ugly Web site, it looks downright unprofessional.Many businesses have succeeded in using the Internet as their primary, or sometimes only, medium. (Youre, of course, aware of this, given that youre reading a HowStuffWorks article. HowStuffWorks started as a hobby for college professor Marshall Brain, and it in the end grew into successful company.)Small businesses, too, have become easier to start up using the Internet. If youre a stay-at-home mom who makes a killer batch of cookies, you can easily sell them over the Internet and ship them to your customers.But, its not everlastingly as simple as it sounds. Any business conducted online must divvy up security, privacy or even copyright issues. Copyright issues would include making sure your business doesnt use someone elses original work (such as a logo, for instance) or even making sure no one el se is profiting from your businesss creative work.One of the biggest ways the Internet has changed business is through targeted advertising. victimisation Google, companies can specify the keywords that will drive certain customers to their ad. For instance, if you were to plug the word baking into Google, you might click on a page from epicurious.com. That epicurious page will have Google ads from sponsors who sell baking-related products. A company that sells rolling pins can pay to have its ads show up for people who wait for specific words, like baking, pies or dough. It makes good business sense people who search for baking on Google will be much more believably to click on a rolling pin ad than the second-rate person.Despite what weve discussed in this article, we havent even scratched the surface of what new technology can do for business communications. The next page provides links to even more articles on information technology and products that have business implicati ons.

Longitudinally Extensive Transverse Myelitis Patients

aloofnesswise broad Transverse Myelitis PatientsCharacteristics of Longitudinally Extensive Transverse Myelitis patients a retrospective psycho synopsis of 40 consecutive cases at a tertiary commission hospital from North-West IndiaAbstractLongitudinally pan center transverse myelitis (LETM), characterised by spinal anaesthesia stack inflammation extending three or more vertebral plane sections gaberdinethorn be perk upd by multiple disorders most ballpark being neuromyelitis optica(NMO). much(prenominal) is the frequent association between these deuce entities that there is a exploitation concern to regard them as being practically synonymous with severally other. However, all potential etiologies should be considered in the assessment of LETM. We conducted retrospective analysis (2010-2014) of 40 patients of LETM for demographic features, clinical being, science lab investigations and neuro- resourcefulness. Result Majority of the patients presented aggressively with bladder dysfunction and paraparesis. Ten out of 40(25%) were assort as NMO among which that 4 were serum NMO antibody verificatory. Among the rest, there were 6 patients of MS, 3 patients of tubercular, 2 patients severally of ADEM, spinal AVM and postinfectious etiology, nonpareil patient severally of SACD and SLE. A base of 13 patients remained in whom no causative factor could be identified from the getable investigations. Conclusion LETM veritable(a) with optic neuritis does not universally represent a diagnosis of NMO and one needs to be cautious while devising a diagnosis of NMO without consideration of other etiologies as the intervention and outlook differs among different etiologies.Abbreviations MS (multiple sclerosis) AVM (arteriovenous malformation) SACD (subacute combined degeneration) ADEM (acute disseminated encephalomyelitis) TM (transverse myelitis).Key words Longitudinally drawn-out transverse myelitis Neuromyelitis opticaIntroductionLongitudi nally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM) is a relatively late term designating a transverse myelitis(TM) that extends three or more vertebral segments vertically. These lesions, which may occasionally span the entire length of the spinal cord, are much rarer and in general associated with greater morbidity than the typical lesions of idiopathic TM or multiple sclerosis (MS) associated TM(1).The make out discriminating feature of LETM lesions is their length. The most frequent thrust of LETM is neuromyelitis optica (NMO). In recent judgment of convictions the association between these two conditions has been so heavily emphatic that when LETM is en opineered, an erroneous diagnosis of NMO may be made prior to elaborated consideration of other potential etiologies of LETM(1).Thus, early recognition and establishment of the etiology of LETM from appropriate workup is essential for optimizing return and in some cases commencing appropriate treatment to prevent future attacks of central scatter sensationed system (CNS) inflammation.Studies comparing clinical, science lab and radiological profiles of the LETM patients are scarce, especially from the developing countries. Thus, this study was conducted to review the characteristics of introduction and etiological classification of LETM at SMS Medical College and Hospital, Jaipur, a tertiary care centre of North India.Patients and MethodsThe study is a retrospective analysis (2010-2014) of 40 patients classified as having LETM on the basis of clinical manifestations of myelitis and spinal magnetic resonance imaging finding of lesions typically extending three or more vertebral segments in length, admitted in SMS Medical College and Hospital, Jaipur with the look oning objectives-To study the clinical, radiological and CSF profile of patients with LETM.To instruct the aetiology of the myelitis.Patient demographics, presenting symptoms, clinical manifestations and investigations were recorded on data pre sentation forms.The investigations included routine blood profile along with markers of connective waver disorders (ESR, CRP, ANA, Anti dS DNA), magnetic resonance imaging (of involved spinal cord segments in T2- weighted images of spinal MRI and MRI virtuoso), CSF analysis (including oligoclonal bands) and serum NMO antibody (NMO Ab) which was through with(p) by corroboratory immunofluorescence method.Results40 patients were found to fulfil the LETM criteria. 22 among the 40 patients were slight than 30 historic period age (55%). Overall Mean age was 28 categorys with male person female ratio of 1.81, suggestive of male preponderance. asunder from it no specific trend was observed among the study group in terms of their demographics.The majority of patients presented with bladder dysfunction, paraparesis and quadriparesis. Most of the patients had an acute presentation. Collectively, thoracic spinal cord segment was most normally involved. 12 patients had clinically eviden tiary vision impairment at the time of presentation of which 10 were classified as NMO according to Wingerchuck et al criteria, one case was classified as MS and another(prenominal) was a case of SACD (Table 1).Table 1 Presenting clinical featuresTable 2 Radiological FindingsCerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis was seen in 55 %( 22 out of 40 patients) ranging from 10 to 250 cells/cumm. Among 10 NMO patients, 5 showed CSF pleocytosis of which 2 had neutrophilic predominance. The maximum cell count among NMO patients was 35 cells with lymphocytic predominance. isolated from it, 3 patients of tubercular, 2 patients severally of postinfectious etiology and ADEM , one patient of MS and 4 patients of undetermined etiology also showed CSF pleocytosis. The maximum CSF cell count was 250 cells in one of the tubercular patient with lymphocytic predominance. CSF proteins were elevated in 15 out of 40(37.5%) patients of which 3 patients were each(prenominal) of MS and tubercular etiology, 2 patients each of NMO and postinfectious etiology and 5 patients were of undetermined kinsperson. Out of 40 patients, 18 had extensive lesions involving 6 spinal cord segments .Among 38 patients in whom MRI encephalon was done, 10 showed abnormalities, of which 5 patients were of MS, two were each of ADEM and tubercular etiology and another one was NMO (NMO Ab positive) (Table 2).Among the MS patients, abnormalities were seen involving deep uninfected matter of bilateral intellectual hemispheres, corpus callosum, top dogstem and principal(a) ganglia.Based upon the above-mentioned clinical presentation and investigations, patients were classified according to their etiologies (Table 3).Table 3 Etiology of LETM patients10 patients were of NMO fulfilling revise diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica by Wingerchuk et al (7). In 8 out of 10 patients NMO antibody was sent, 2 patients refused for it. 4 out of them were NMO Ab positive and remaining 4 were negative. Among 10 NMO p atients just one patient had lesions in MRI thinker typical of NMO ( learn 12)).Four of ten patients in whom serum NMO Ab was done showed positivity and one of the NMO Ab positive patient had brain MRI abnormality involving brainstem, shadow part of corpus callosum, left parietal periventricular white matter. Six patients were of MS fulfilling the revised McDonald criteria for diagnosis of MS. Three patients were of tubercular myelitis ,two patients each were of ADEM , postinfectious etiology, and spinal AVM. One was having nutritional cause in form of vitamin B12 need and one patient had SLE (ANA dsDNA positive). Rest of the patients could not be categorized to a expressed etiology from the useable investigations.DiscussionIn our series, common presenting symptoms were bladder dysfunction, paraparesis, quadriparesis, and visual impairment. Majority of the patients studied suffered from bladder dysfunction and paraparesis.It is a difficult task to determine the underlying etio logy of LETM and it is worth exploring each case for subtle clues that may point toward the correct underlying diagnosis as the prognosis and long-term treatment decision differs in each category. Till now there are no studies describing association of clinical features and demographic features with the etiology of the myelitis (2).In our series the maximum CSF cell count (250) was in tubercular patient. Maximum CSF cell count in NMO and MS patients was 35 and 30 respectively.It is now well established that LETM does not universally represent a diagnosis of NMO, even in the setting of optic neuritis. However, in our series demyelinating disorders were found to be the most common cause of LETM and NMO was the most common etiology among demyelinating disorders.All NMO patients fulfilled the criteria laid ware by Wingerchuk et al (3). Among ten NMO patients, four were NMO antibody positive. Three main laboratory techniques are utilized in identifying the antibodies. In our patients it was done by the indirect immunofluorescence method which has the reported sensitivity and specificity of 86% and 91% respectively (4). At present, it is un sporting whether there is truly a subset of patients with clinical NMO that are NMO antibody negative, or if this is a result of inadequate sensitivity of existing immunoassays to detect the antibody, or inadequately sensitive and specific diagnostic criteria, or a gang of all of these factors.Although a regular come about up was not available in all NMO patients, a telephonic survey revealed that four NMO patients, of which two were seronegative and in two NMO antibody was not done, had no relapse and are doing well. Apart from this, one patient died from subsequent relapse and one could not be assessed in follow up. Among the four NMO antibody positive patients, who were under regular follow up, two (50%) presented with relapsing- remitting form of illness. One was 25 forms mature male who initially had 4 episodes of parap aresis with near complete recovery each time and developed vision impairment in the fifth episode and another was a 12 year former(a) girl who had four relapses with synchronic occurrence of vision impairment and paraparesis in the first episode. Thus, 4 patients had a monophasic disease course in 1 year follow up. However, a diagnosis of monophasic NMO should be considered with caution, because more than 90% of patients with NMO ultimately develop a relapsing course. One prospective Class I study found that the presence of aquaporin-4specific autoantibodies (AQP4) predicts recurrence of TM or conversion to NMO(5). So was our observation in the form that out of the 3 patients who had relapse, 2 were NMO antibody positive. Therefore, we suppose that AQP4 antibody status, particularly seropositivity, has some predictive value.Median age of onset of NMO is in the fourth decade. In our series all NMO patients were below 40 years of age except one who was a 52 years old female (figure 3).Interestingly this patient apart from late onset, also presented with slowly modern paraparesis of one year duration which has not been described earlier in the literature.In spinal NMO lesions, the central part of the cord is commonly affected, including both grayness and white matter with peripheral sparing (figure 3). These imaging features may therefore help to differentiate MS from NMO in patients who present with LETM(6).Among the NMO antibody positive patients, one had typical brain lesions of NMO (Figure 1). In patients with clinical and radiological features differently typical for NMO, 6085% of cases have been shown to have abnormal brain lesions. Lesions involving the diencephalon and brainstem distinctly atypical for MS have been commonly reported in NMO patients. These distinctive lesions predominately involve the hypothalamus and provoke extend to brain tissue surrounding the third and fourth ventricle and aqueduct of Sylvius and seem to be characteristic brain lesions of NMO(7).There were 13 patients in whom a definite etiological diagnosis could not be made from the feasible investigations. This group is usually described in the literature as idiopathic. However, the idiopathic nature is a diagnosis of exclusion. In our series whether these patients were belonging to the category of postinfectious or some other form of demyelinating etiology was not clear from the investigations that were done in these patients as these patients were also later lost to follow up.Among 3 patients who were classified as tubercular on the basis of reactive CSF and positive TB PCR, one had intramedullary spinal tuberculomas (Figure 4). Intramedullary tuberculomas (IMT) are seen in only 2 out of 100,000 cases of tuberculosis and 2 out of 1,000 cases of central nervous system tuberculosis, are even rare as a cause of LETM(8).Out of these three, one had complete recovery with ATT and remaining 2 had poor outcome with bedridden status.Among 40 LETM patients, w e were able to categorise only two patients as ADEM on clinical and radiological grounds (Figure 5).Both patients were of paediatric age (14 and 16 years) group, had complete and rapid recovery with no recurrence on 6 month follow up, which made the diagnosis even more certain, and agree with the fact that monophasic course is the hallmark of ADEM. MRI features of ADEM that are unusual in MS are symmetric bilateral disease, relative sparing of the periventricular white matter and deep grey matter function (9). However, 22% of ADEM patients had a periventricular lesion pattern indistinguishable from that seen in MS (10).Similar radiological features were observed by us in both patients (Figure 5 and 6). The radiological features of spinal cord involvement in ADEM in adults have not been well studied. In a small Dutch series, one-third of patients had lesions extending more than two vertebral segments on spinal MRI at presentation (11). Approximately 75% patients with ADEM have a pr eceding infection, and by definition there allow for be evidence of demyelination within the brain, as well as in the spinal cord, as seen in our patients (Figure 6). These features may help to differentiate ADEM from NMO spectrum disorders.Among the metabolic causes, subacute combined degeneration (SACD) of the cord due to vitamin B12 deficiency can produce longitudinally extensive hyperintense signal on MRI imaging as seen in one of our patient (Figure 7). Generally T2 weighted scans award focal high signal abnormalities in the white matter of the dorsal and posterior columns in SACD (12).In conclusion, the differential diagnosis of LETM is broad. Although characteristically associated with NMO, this diagnosis accounts for less than half of cases of isolated LETM in adults, and may be even less common in children. Patients presenting with LETM require a thorough work-up to obviate other treatable causes particularly infectious and insurgent.The management of LETM is dependen t on distinguishing inflammatory from non-inflammatory aetiologies and in identifying patients who are at high risk of further attacks.Figure LegendsFigure 1 MRI brain presentation hyperintensities (arrowheads) involving brainstem, left parietal periventricular white matter, posterior part of corpus callosum in seropositive patient of NMO (12 year old girl)Figure 2 MRI cervical spine T2 weighted sagittal and axial images of same patient showing predominant involvement of central grey matter (arrowheads).Figure 3 MRI cervical spine T2 weighted sagittal and axial images of 52 years old NMO antibody positive female showing predominant involvement of central grey matter.Figure 4T2 weighted sagittal and axial images showing hyperintensity (arrowheads) in cervical cord with contrast enhancement suggestive of tuberculoma.Figure 5 MRI cervicodorsal spine, T2 weighted sagittal and axial images of a 16 year old girl with ADEM.MRI brain of the same patient showed lesions (arrowheads) in basal ganglia, brainstem and cortex typical of ADEM.Figure 6 MRI brain and spine of a 14 years old male with ADEM showing hyperintensities in brain involving bilateral periventricular white matter and long segment hyperintensity in the cord extending upto conus.Figure 7 Hyperintense signal in posterior aspect (arrow) of cervicodorsal cord in T2 weighted axial and sagittal images of SACD patient.ReferencesEckstein C., Syc S. and Saidha S., differential coefficient diagnosis of longitudinall extensive transverse myelitis in adults ENJ 2011 3 1). July 2011.Scott T., Frohman E., De Seze J. et al., Evidence-based guideline clinical evaluation and treatment of transverse myelitis. clinical neurology December, 2011Wingerchuk et al. Revised diagnostic criteria for NMO. Neurology 2006661485-9Waters P, Vincent A. Detection of anti-aquaporin-4 antibodies in neuromyelitis optica Current status of the assays. Int MS J 2008 1599-105.Weinshenker B, Wingerchuk D, Vukusic S, et al. Neuromyelitis Optica IgG predicts relapse following longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis. Ann Neurol 2006 59566569Wingerchuk, DM. Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum deranges. Continuum Lifelong Learning Neurol 2010 16(5) 105-121Brain Abnormalities in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder K. Woojun, K. Su-Hyun, H. So-Young and K. Ho Jin Multiple Sclerosis International Volume 2012.Imaging diagnosing of spinal anesthesia Intramedullary Tuberculoma Case Reports and Literature Review Lu Ming J Spinal Cord Med. Apr 201033(2)159 162Kesselring J, Miller DH, Robb SA, et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. MRI findings and the distinction from multiple sclerosis. Brain 1990113(Pt 2)291302Dale RC, de Sousa C, Chong WK, Cox TC, Harding B, Neville BG. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis in children. Brain 2000 123(Pt 12)24072422Ketelslegers I, Visser I, Neuteboom R, boon M, Catsman-Berrevoets C and Hintzen R. Disease course and outcom e of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis is more good in adults than in children. Mult Scler 2011 17(4) 441448Larner A, Zeman A, Allen C. MRI appearances in subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord due to vitamin B12 deficiency. JNNP 19976299-101.

Life Cycle Assessment of a Computer Mouse

conduct Cycle sagacity of a Computer Mo utilizeTABLE OF CONTENTSABSTRACTThis sick living Cycle judgement aims at learning ab step forward how to chair a feel cycle appraisal of a granted produce ( in this project ready reckvirtuosor walk is the harvesting) victimization Cambridge Engineering chooser (CES) softwargon. In this document History of the pilfer as of when it was invented and what ar the developments that took move in years, composition of reversal, novel actuals used in the electronic estimator reverse, the manufacturing form and the by crossings and waste during the manufacturing and extraction of the computer mouse will be discussed. subsequently on with the help of Cambridge Engineering selector we use the application of Eco audited account incision and provide it necessary input into it to achieve the necessary siding. The payoff is the outcome or the result of the project. In addition to that for from each one one and either comp angi otensin converting enzyment of the computer mouse will be discussed in level and the environmental hazards related to the increaseion of each of them will be discussed.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would athe give cares of(p) to express my deep appreciation to my supervisor Mr. N.HART, for his guidance, review, suggestions, kindness, valuable time, criticisms and comments curiosity-to-end my M.sc Project.I am most grateful and thankful to university technical ply Michael Britton for his encouragement from the very beginning of the study and guiding me passim my M.sc course.I remain indebted and my love goes to my family for helping me accomplish this thesis. My p arnts obligate been a constant source of support-emotional, moral and financial during my post graduate years and this thesis would certainly not have existed without them.1. INTRODUCTIONHistory of computer mouseDr. Douglas Engelbart has invented the firstly device that came out as mouse in the year 1964. During this time th e only way the cursor scrolling position in the computer screen was by using the arrow keys on the key jury and it was in truth inefficient and awkward to use. It incorporates mechanism which is in the form of modest brick with unrivaled button on top and underneath two wheels and was make by Douglas. The purpose of these wheels is to detect horizontal and vertical movement and on the complete the unit was little bit difficult to use. For viewing the cursor on the monitor The connection to the computer was established by means of a cable so that the motion signals could be send out electric wholey. A wide cable tail featured like device like a mouse so the denote mouse came into picture.NASA team up move varied methods which enables the cursor to move on the computer screen like the devices Light pens, knee switches and steering wheels, albeit, in testing of these devices Engel arts mouse gained popularity. Engineers thought that the mouse was ideal for drafting and illust ration purposes And could build up computer aided bearings on the same desk. S small(a)ly mouse began to be called as input/output device. To make the scrolling easier the mouse began to multiply rapidly. The fit coming out from the mouse reminded a tail which is one end and the different end is used for connecting to the central work outing unit.2. BODY AND report card OF THE MOUSEBody of the mouseThe outer draw close of the mouse is hard tractile body which the user guides across a flat surfaceThe tail of a mouse is an electrical cable that minces out from one end and finishes at the connection at the Central Processing unit of measurementIt posses one to triad buttons at the extremity which ar external contacts to small electrical switchesWith a click on the button the electrical spell is forced to close and the computer receives a commandBelow the mouse theres an p stopping full stopic hatch that fits over a rubberized ball which exposes a small part of the ballA support wheel and two shafts assure the ball in place inside the MouseRotation of the spokes causes IR light signals from light emitting diode to flick through the spoke which atomic look 18 past captured by a light detectorPhototransistors help to return these light signals into electrical pulses which range the integrated circuit interface in the mouseThese pulses thence confirms the IC whether the ball has followed an up down or left right movementThe IC commands the cursor to scroll on to the screen consequently.The interface IC is then ascended onto a printed circuit board. This forms the skeletal abut to which each and every Internal mechanism in the mouse ar joinedThe information from the signals and switches coming out from the phototransistors is collected by a computer chip or ICThese are then sent to the computer by means of a selective information streamThe oral sex of the MouseEvery mouse design consists of an individual software know as driverThese driver are The external brain which enables the PC to comprehend the mouse signals.The driver commands the PC how to under die hard the mouses IC entropy stream including speed, direction, and clicked commandsThe mouses IC data stream which intromits clicked commands, direction and speed. Few mouse drivers permit the user to qualify performance to the buttons and vary the mouses resolution ( outdistance relative to cursor and mouse travel).The Mouse which are purchased as a part of computer packages have built in drivers or is programmed ab initio in the computersRAW MATERIALS IN THE MOUSEThe outer shell of the mouse and the majority of its internal parts, which includes spoked wheels and shafts are usually do up of vinyl cyanide Butadiene Styrene (ABS) elastic which is usually shooting moulded. The ball is raw materialally do of metal which is rubber coated and is usually supplied by a particularity supplierThe electrical micro switches which is produced from metal and plastic a re of ledge items which are supplied by subcontractors redden though the designers of the mouse shag specify force requirements for switches to make it easier of harder to click. The chips or IC could be standard items even though individual manufacturer might have proprietary chips which can be utilised in its complete crossroads line. The outside source overly supplies electrical cables and over moulds To suit the design of mouse the printed circuit board (PCB) over Which the mechanical and electrical fragments are accumulated is tradition made Oscillators, integrated circuits, capacitors, electrical resistors and various other components are made of varied figures of plastic, metal and siliconThe raw materials which are used in manufacturing of a computer mouse are as followsMouse DesignThe basic design of a computer mouse was conceived and prototyped in early sixties and steriolithography concept is employed efficiently within the concurrent engineering science. The con current engineering development takes place in two design teams , the electrical team emphasizing on control circuitry and the mechanical team working on casing layout and button geometry. For operating the mouse, the users posture, finger extension needed to reach the buttons, use by both right and left give individuals, no prolonged static electricity and lastly the requirements safety and comfort They convert widely depending on whether the use of mouse is in home or office computers The brief design of mouse for the proposed mouse is written to rationalize Which the mechanical and electrical components are accumulated is tradition made an air is also proposed in staying along with the probable market. The design team comes stake to the table along with foam simulates for a single mouse design scores of various shapes are made and the user testing on the models are performed whereas the preliminary tests are performed by engineers or the focus may be turned onto groups as typical users or observes one to one testing with user samples.When a suitable selection is chosen, wooden models which are more refined and painted are produced from the winning design. The input of the model is acquired based on the feel, shape and looks and then ergonomist reviews the probable designs and confirms the goal of valet factors guidelines to be achieved. After an optimal design is chosen the engineering team starts modelling the internal components. A 3D performance is generated by the computer and same information is used to mould-cut the postures of the exterior shell with every details. at poop the structure the mechanical and electronic engineers fit the printed circuit board and the encoder mechanism.The phenomena of adapted the workings on to the shell are iterative, the diversifys are then made and then the design and fit process are conducted so long as the mouse achieves the design documentarys and the design team is happy. The custom chips are then d esigned and produced on a trial basis and then tested for the design to meet the performance objectives and provide it unique, competitive and salable characteristics the help of custom electronics is required. The fully undefiled design figures are handed over to the project tooled who then starts the process of modifying machines to manufacture the mouse. To generate the injection moulding of the shell tooling diagrams are made into use.The factors like shape and size, intensiveness of the cavity, the name of gates through which the plastic will be injected into the mould, and the plastic flow in the mould are all diagrammed and studied later on analyzing the final plans of tooling the tools are fabricated using computer aided data. ikon plastic shells are made as try shots to find out the actual flow lines and to make sure that voids are not included. the process is precise. Texture is applied to the external outlook of the shell by sand blasting or by acid etching.The Man ufacturing ProcessTo manufacture a computer mouse several processes are used to make different pieces of the unit. The processes that are used in manufacturing are as follows.First the Printed lot board (PCB) is prepared in the journey of manufacturing and assembling steps. This board is a flat, resin coated sheet that can be of surface-mount design or through hole design. The convention of surface mount version is all in all make by the machine. The other electrical components are placed on to the board in prescribed pattern by a computer controlled automatic sequencer. The connecting wires of the electronic components are induced in the holes of the PCB assembly. Then all the components are placed on the board, the bottom surface is passed through liquified lead solder in a soldering machine. This machine removes contaminants by passing the board with flux. The board is gently heated by the machine and the component it induces with infrared heat is to lessen the possibility of thermal shock. The solder raises each line by hair-like activity, seals the perforations and repairs the components in the correct placeAfter this process is done the PCB is cooled and is visually inspected in advance the mechanism is committed.A separate unit is assembled for the encoder mechanism. gibe moulding process is used to manufacture the plastic parts (computer mouse case housing) with proper specifications and the left over scrap plastic material is trimmed off. The whole unit is fastened to the PC Board using screws keeping in view after the encoder mechanism is completely assembled. With caste of wires, rubber and shielding cover the mouses tail and its electrical cable attached are manufactured. Overmolds are the additional pieces of the cable to obstruct the cable from separating aside from the mouse. We can make our own shapes of design for overmolds, the near mouse overmold is strung-out to the At the other end of the tail the connectedness is then soldered t o the wires and the connector over mold is exploded into place.The outer shell pieces are then examined visually after moulding, Trimming and surface finish treatment and in the beginning the assembly. The external housing is assembled in four steps. To the bottom of the shell the completed PCB and encoder assembly are inserted. Onto the housing top part, the cable is joined the bottom and top are joined together using automated screwdrivers.The last electronics and the achievement quality inspection are accomplished, if assembly is complete in the substantial one. Rubber or neoprene feet with the adhesive covering in front-turned at a side is added the lower surface of the mouse.A programming team has been developing testing, reproducing the mouse driver firm ware, while the tooling designs and physical assembly are in progress. As above said firmware is the conclave of software and hardware codes which has the unity of integrated circuit, translated mouse directional movements an d micro switch signals which are understood when the mouse is attached.By- point of intersections and wasteComputer mice makers do not generate by- results from the manufacturers of mouse, albeit most of them suggest a variety of analogous devices for altered applications. In order to avoid the design, tooling, assembly modification cost the new and multiple designs are in corporate when executable.Waste is minimal. The mouses ABS plastic skin is highly recyclable and can be ground, moulded, and reground many times. slender quantities can be reprocessd using metal scrap and other plastics.3. career CYCLE ASSESSMENTLCA is a holistic tool used to signalize the environmental consequences of a product, process or activity through its ideal spiritedness cycle and to key opportunities for achieving environmental improvements. Life cycle breaker points includeRaw materials acquisition,Manufacturing,Use/reuse.Maintenance.And cycle/waste management.For epitome, in the case of comp uter mouse an LCA involves devising detailed measurements during the manufacture of the device. In the design stage of new products LCA information is very profitableLCA gives the whole assessment of the point of origin to the end of a product or process, i.e from processing of natural resources to shipping, mining, and also how the material be recycled or reused and till it is disposed permanently. As a system, LCA identifies the whole process and possible environmental effects throughout a products behavior cycle.The term livelihood cycle refers to the holistic assessment which assess all the operations in the supply image ,i.e raw material production , production, fabricating, distribution, modes of enchant, end product, use and disposal of all the materials or products involved ..LCA method is one of the executive methods for evaluating the environment. It identifies that each and every product has certain influence on the environment during its life cycle, where each pro duct is standardized and is temporarily assigned an environmental annex.For in this regard life cycle assessment is a central tool.The LCA method can be classified into three steps -Inventory synopsisGoal and eye socket interpretationImpact assessmentThe technique which allows the comparison of the environmental dazes of materials and products is Life Cycle mind. This assessment allows us to modify the duodecimal data and to identify the potential environmental matchs of the material or product on the environment. LCA is common for assessments to be made of more limited periods eg. Cradle-to-gate and cover the entire life cycle life cycle of a material.The entire analysis is referred to as cradle-to-cradle which refers to production from extraction of raw materials, production and delivery and is often downcast down into contours of lesser ambition.Goal and scope definition -Scoping is the most detailed component of LCA because it provides a frame of reference for the ent ire study and helps coiffure interrelationships among the other three LCA components stock-taking analysis, conflict assessment, and improvement assessment. The goal definition identifies the overall purpose for the LCA and its intended applications. Goal definition and scoping initiates the LCA and then drives the scope, frontier settings, data categories and data needs. This process is continuously revisited during an LCA. Scoping defines the boundaries, assumptions and limitations and should be done before an LCA is conducted to ensure that the breadth and depth of analysis are consistent with the specify goal of the LCA.Inventory AnalysisIt is the well-developed component of LCA. A completed inventory analysis provides an overview of the life-cycle inputs and outputs associated with a particular system. The results of an inventory analysis may be used to identify areas to achieve improvement, as baseline information for conducting an impact assessment or some combination of the two. This analysis gives the boundaries of the system to be studied and develop a data questionnaire to collect the appropriate data. Develops, stand alone subsystem data and conducts a peer review to validate the results. This analysis may be used to identify areas to achieve improvement as baseline information for conducting an impact assessment.Impact AssessmentIn this cast of LCA, the inputs and outputs of the system identified in the inventory analysis are translated into quantitative and or qualitative descriptions of environmental impacts by using models. A very few LCAs have attempted to include impacts because of the inherent complexities and data requirements of impact assessment. We do impact assessment because it provides the LCA user information that is more useful for decision making.Some of the LCA impact categoriesImpacts of land useClimate changeStratospheric ozone depletionHuman toxicityEcotoxicityPhoto-oxidant formationImpacts of ionizing radiationAcidificat ionEutrophicationDepletion of abiotic resourcesDepletion of biotic resourcesImprovement AssessmentIt is the least developed component of LCA. The main purpose of improvement assessment is to identify and valuate specific actions that target priority impacts within the life-cycle frame work. Identification and estimation of opportunities to achieve improvements in processes that result in cut back environmental impacts, is based on the results of an inventory study or impact assessment.LCA may be utilised for several purposesTo develop the environmental typefaces of a product and to find out the frail systems in the product chain.For product improvement for environmentally enhanced products.For making executive decisions in governmental organisations.Helps to select and compare among the available products.For fluffingture of relevant indicator of environmental presentation.4. ECO AUDIT TOOLEco audit tool enables the product designers to quickly evaluate the environmental impact of a product, and it helps to reduce the environmental measures. By making use of CES software, this can be achieved by focussing on two environmental stressorsTo minimize the environmental step of a product, identification of the supreme leg is very important and it enables a designer to establish which aspect of the design to target The result of the eco audit forms the objective for the product design. This objective is dependent on both the dominant phase and the product application.Life Cycle AnalysisThe Life cycle analysis of the product life cycle is split into three main sections in the eco audit tool cloth, manufacture, and end of life chargeUse1. Material, manufacture, and end of lifeThis the first section of the product definition which allows us to enter the Bill of Materials(BOM) for the product, with each line representing an individual component. thither is no limit on the number of components that can be added.Reading across the input dialog box, the entries are as followsQuantityThis tower tells us about the different number of individual components that are used in making of the product. This quantity column enables the specification of duplicate components in a hierarchal order. . The default take account is one because there is no product with zero quantity.Component nameIt is the dialogue box for entering the name of each individual component of the product.MaterialThe material drop-down transportation displays the full Material Universe maneuver of the active database. Materials are selected by browsing the tree and clicking on the depict for the material of our interest. Once we have done this, the eco audit tool extracts data from the material record to teach what pickaxs to display in the Primary process and End of life menus.Certain products include components that do not cave in to all life phases. For example, the water in a drinks bottle contributes to the raptus phase but not the material and manufacturing phases. This contribution is handled by creating a dummy component with no material, or process, assigned to it.Recycle nubWe have three recycle contents which can be stipulate as 0%, 100%, and typical %.As the names suggest, 0% represents the use of virgin material, where all the feedstock is produced from raw materials. 100% represents the other intense, where the material is manufactured entirely from feedstock reclaimed from end of life components. Typical %, lies amid these two extremes and accounts for the level of recycled material incorporated back into the supply chain as standard practice. This applies to materials, such as metals and churles, where end of life recycling has become integrated into the supply chain. This practice leads to standard grades containing significant levels of recycled material. For example, lead alloys generally contain 50-60% recycled material.Although many materials can be recycled, and have recycle fraction in current supply value quoted in the Materi al universe database, they are not routinely reintroduced into the standard supply. As a result, the typical recycle content choice is only displayed for grades of metal and glass that are flagged as recyclable.Primary processThe primary process dropdown menu displays the processes that are applicable to the material selected from the tree. This information, and associated data, is extracted from the materials datasheet. The available primary processes in the database are shown in the below table. skirt Available primary processes (Level 1 and 2 database)As electrical components are finished sub-assemblies, the material and process energies (and CO2) have been incorporated into one value Embodied energy, primary production. As a consequence, no processing options are available for these components.Mass (kg)Numeric field for specifying the fold of the component. This value is multiplied by the quantity (Qty) field value to determine the total stilt for the component.End of LifeThis drop-down menu displays all possible ends of life options for the selected material. There are seven ends of life options and their applicable materials. appear of these seven, the first four are directly displayed on the datasheet depending on the type of material. The remaining life options are not specified and are added as other possible options for all materials.The end of life option generally defaults to Landfill. The main exception is for toxic materials, which default to the next viable option (usually in down cycle order).Table describes the possible end life options and their Summaryrelated to the materials2. TransportTransportation phase is the second part of the product definition. This phase relates to the transport of the finished product from the source of manufacture to the customer all(prenominal) line in the table relates to one stage of the process journey. There is no limit on the number of stages that can be added. For each stage, three parameters are defined stage name, transport efficiency (transport type), and distance.The transport efficiency is specified through the transport type dropdown menu, which lists the main methods for transporting goods.Table transport options and associated environmental perfumeTo determine the environmental impact of each stage the energy usage and the carbon foot print values are combined with the product mass and distance.i.e. Energy usage is given byTransport Energy =Transport energy per unit mass * distance * product mass.And carbon foot print byTransport co2=Transport energy per unit mass*Distance*product mass*carbon foot print.3. UseThe final stage of the product definition is the use phase.Product lifeNumeric field for specifying the product life, in years. The value for the year is considered to be default (1).Country electricity mixThe Country electricity mix drop-down menu enables the particular mix of dodo and non-fossil fuel of the country of use to be specified. This is split into three m ain groups global regions, individual countries, and fossil fuel percentage. The default option is World.Compared to the other sources, such as nuclear, hydroelectric and wind power, the environmental burden of electricity generated from fossil fuels is significantly higher. So this specification of country of use is very important phase of the eco audit tool.This is due to the relatively low efficiency in converting fossil fuels to electricity (1MJ of electricity requires about 3MJ of fossil fuel). The impact of a countrys energy mix on the energy equality and carbon footprint of its electricity supply is summarized in Figure.The final group in the country electricity mix menu specifies the electricity mix based on the proportion derived from fossil fuels (0% to 100% at 5% intervals). The environmental impact of these has been calculated using the following assumptionsThe carbon footprint of electricity is dominated by the contribution from fossil fuels, with the proportion derive d from other sources having no, or negligible, contribution.And the conversion process for generating electricity from fossil fuels is taken to be 33% efficient.In this use phase we have two modes namely static mode and mobile mode which describes the product energy usage. In static mode the available options are energy input and output which describes the conversion of one form of energy into another, power rating and usage. In the mobile mode, we have fuel and mobility type and its usage.Modes of useThe use phase is divided into two modes of operation static mobile.Static relates to products that are (normally) nonmoving but require energy to function. For example electrically powered products like electric kettles, refrig